Resources to help researchers in writing and publishing in English.

Read the following sentence:

Prolonged stress can lead to depression. Therefore, it is important to identify stressful people and help them manage their stress effectively.

Here the use of stressful is incorrect. The correct word is stressed.

What's the difference?

Stressful	Stressed
The word stressful is used to refer to something that causes stress.	The word stressed is used to refer to someone under stress or experiencing stress.
My mother was ill, my dog had an accident, and I had an exam; it was a really stressful experience!	People often get stressed while giving a test.

In the above example, people who experience stress and not people who cause stress have been referred to. Therefore, stressed should be used instead of stressful and the correct sentence will read as follows:

Prolonged stress can lead to depression. Therefore, it is important to identify stressed people and help them manage their stress effectively.

Read the following sentence:

The parameter Avg was used to memorize the average value of the previous three numbers.

Here the use of memorize is incorrect. The correct word is store.

What's the difference?

Memorize	Store
This word means to learn something carefully so that it can be remembered exactly.	In the field of computer science, this word means to copy data in the computer's memory (or on a storage device such as a hard-disk).
The students memorized the alphabets.	The database was used to store the inventory data.
Grammatical term: Verb	Grammatical term: Verb

In the above sentence, a parameter (Avg) used by a computer program to retain a value in its memory is being referred to. Therefore, store should be used instead of memorize and the correct sentence will read as follows:

The parameter Avg was used to store the average value of the previous three numbers.

Read the following sentence:

An emergent surgery was performed because the patient's condition had worsened.

Here the use of emergent is incorrect. The correct word is emergency.

What's the difference?

Emergent	Emergency
The word emergent means coming into existence.	The word emergency means a sudden unforeseen crisis that requires immediate/urgent action.
My neighbor is a member of an emergent social group.	Some students misbehaved on campus; therefore, the principal called an emergency meeting of the student's committee.

The above sentence implies that surgery had to be urgently performed as the patient's condition had worsened. Therefore, emergency is the appropriate word and the correct sentence will read as follows:

An emergency surgery was performed because the patient's condition had worsened.

Read the following sentence:

The economical relations between the two countries are improving.

Here the use of economical is incorrect. The correct word is economic.

What's the difference?

Economical	Economic
Used to describe a commodity or service that provides good value in relation to the amount of money spent or to the act of producing or organizing something using no more money than is necessary	Typically refers to financial matters or matters dealing with the economy of a nation
The consultancy service offered by this company is very economical.	Progressive economic reforms were ushered in.

Hence, in the above example, economic is the appropriate word since the relation between two nations is being described. The sentence should therefore read as follows:

The economic relations between the two countries are improving.

Read the following sentence:

In this report, the author intervenes in the system in some prisons, showing sympathy towards the prisoners.

Here the use of intervene is incorrect. The correct word is intercede.

What's the difference?

Intervene	Intercede
The word intervene can be used to denote the act of becoming involved in a situation in order to improve or help it. Further, intervene implies direct action.	The word intercede refers to the much more verbal act of pleading on someone else's behalf in order to help solve an argument.
When two young children fight, their parents often intervene and separate them.	When one parent wants to discipline a child, the other parent can intercede on the child's behalf.

In the above sentence, the author attempts to increase sympathy for the condition of prisoners in some prisons—the author describes their condition to those who are in a position to change it and does not effect direct change. Therefore, intercede is appropriate and the correct sentence will read as follows:

In this report, the author intercedes in the system in some prisons, showing sympathy towards the prisoners.

Read the following sentence:

I have read plural books on this topic.

Here the use of plural is incorrect. The correct word is several.

What's the difference?

Read the following sentence:

Plural	Several
Used in grammatical discourses to indicate the form of a noun or verb that refers to more than one person or thing	Used to indicate that the things or persons being referred to are large in number
The plural form of butterfly is butterflies	There are several butterflies in the garden.

In the above example, the person wants to say that s/he has a number of books on a particular topic. Therefore, the word several should be used instead of plural and the correct sentence will read as follows:

I have read several books on this topic.

The example provided above is not a part of a grammatical discussion on the forms of nouns or verbs; instead, it is a general reference to a number of elements. Therefore, the words “several” or “many,” and not “plural,” are appropriate.

Read the following sentence:

The secretary comprises five members.

Here the use of secretary is incorrect. The correct word is secretariat.

What's the difference?

Read the following sentence:

Secretary	Secretariat
A secretary is a person who handles administrative tasks in an office or someone who heads a specific branch of government.	The word secretariat refers to the department that oversees or manages a large international organization.
The department secretary will take phone messages while we are in the meeting.	Since they are at the top of our organization, the secretariat occupies the best office—the top floor penthouse.

In the above sentence, since a group of five people has been referred to, it is evident that the implied word is secretariat and not secretary. The correct sentence will read as follows:

The secretariat comprises five members.

Read the following sentence:

This building is known for it's unique architecture.

Here the use of it's is incorrect. The correct word is its.


What's the difference?

Its	It's
This is the possessive form of the pronoun it, i.e., it indicates belonging to or related to a thing, animal, or a baby.	This is a contraction for it is and it has. Contractions are shortened forms of words, e.g., can't is the contraction used for cannot.

In the above example, a property of a building, i.e., something that the building possesses, is being described. Therefore, here the word its and not it's should be used, and the correct sentence would read as follows:

This building is known for its unique architecture.
TIP: When in doubt, read the sentence with it is or it has. If the sentence reads fine with either of these phrases, then it's should be used. If this is not the case, then its should be used.

Read the following sentence:

We conducted a trial for the new pesticide, and bedbugs were successfully terminated.

Here the use of terminated is incorrect. The correct word is exterminated.

What's the difference?

Read the following sentence:

Terminate	Exterminate
Terminate refers to the act of ending something or causing something to end.	The word exterminate implies the action of killing or wiping out all members of a group of animals or people.
We terminated the project because it was lasting too long.	We found ants in the kitchen and had to exterminate them.

In the above sentence, the bedbugs were wiped out. Therefore, exterminated should be used instead of terminated and the correct sentence will read as follows:

We conducted a trial for the new pesticide, and bedbugs were successfully exterminated.

Read the following sentence:

The doctors recommended that the case be surgically treated.

Here the use of Case is incorrect. The correct word is patient.

What's the difference?

Case	Patient
The instance of a disease	A person who suffers from a disease and is under treatment
Grammatical term: Noun	Grammatical term: Noun

In the above example, the doctors recommended that a person suffering from a disease be surgically treated. Therefore, the word patient should be used instead of the word case and the correct sentence will be,

The doctors recommended that the patient be surgically treated.

Read the following sentence:

I am reading a book in which various eras have been visualized beautifully.

Here the use of visualized is incorrect. The correct word is depicted.

What's the difference?

Visualize	Depict
The word visualize denotes the act of making something visible or seeing a mental image of something, and should be used to describe mental processes.	The word depict refers to the act of representing or portraying something, usually in a creative manner such as painting or writing, and should be used to describe artistic processes.
While reading the book, I visualized mountains covered with snow.	This diagram depicts the life cycle of the butterfly.

In the above sentence, the book is the entity that creates images of various eras in the reader's mind and not the entity actually seeing the images. Therefore, depicted should be used instead of visualized and the correct sentence will read as follows:

I am reading a book in which various eras have been depicted beautifully.

Read the following sentence:

1. The company manufacturers and tests all the products at their in-house laboratories before they are released in the market.
2 Hence, their products carry the manufacture's seal of quality.

Here the use of manufacturers and manufacture's is incorrect. These terms have different meanings.

What's the difference?

Manufacture	Manufacturer
To make something (using a process)	Someone who makes something
An action	An entity or a person

In sentence 1, the author means that the company makes and then tests the products. Hence, manufactures should be used instead of manufacturers. The correct sentence will be,

The company manufactures and tests all the products at their in-house laboratories before they are released in the market.

The seal on the products is of the company that makes them. Hence, in sentence 2, manufacturer's should be used instead of manufacture's. Now the correct sentence will be,

Hence, their products carry the manufacturer's seal of quality.

Read the following sentence:

Vibrio cholerae is one of the most pathogenic aquatic organisms known to infect humans.

Here the use of aquatic is incorrect. The correct word is waterborne.

What's the difference?

Aquatic	Waterborne
The adjective aquatic when used in the context of organisms implies living or growing in, on, or near water.	One of the meanings of the adjective waterborne is transmitted in or via water.
Several species of rare aquatic birds migrate to Rajasthan, India, in winter.	This method is useful for the detection of waterborne viruses.

Thus, while both aquatic and waterborne are used in the context of water, the former refers to water as a growth and life-supporting medium, while the latter refers merely to water being a transportation medium.

The above example refers to a pathogen that is transmitted among hosts via water. Therefore, waterborne is a more appropriate word than aquatic for use in context and the correct sentence will read as follows:

Vibrio cholerae is one of the most pathogenic waterborne organisms known to infect humans.

Read the following example:

The specimens were then observed using a Hitachi H-300 electron microscopy.

Here the use of microscopy is incorrect. The correct word is microscope.

What's the difference?

Microscopy	Microscope
Used to mean 1. The study of microscopes 2. Use of microscopes 3. Investigations by means of a microscope	This is an optical instrument
A method	A tool

In the above example, Hitachi H-300 refers to the instrument (microscope) and not the technique (electron microscopy). Therefore, microscope should be used instead of microscopy and the correct sentence will be,

The specimens were then observed using a Hitachi H-300 electron microscope.

The grammatical term for this is	Noun	Noun
Other examples	Bright field microscopy is a technique that uses a compound microscope.	Compound microscopes are light illuminated instruments with high magnification but low resolution.
	Fluorescence microscopy is a popularly used technique, both in the medical and biological sciences. The technique has made it possible to identify cells and cellular components with a high degree of specificity.	The fluorescence microscopes are equipped with three fluorescent filter cubes, each containing specific barrier filters and a beam-splitting mirror.

Read the following example:

The Discussion section was not well-written in our old manuscript. We have rewritten this section in the revised version.

Here the use of old is incorrect. The correct word is original.

What's the difference?

Old	Original
The word old means of an earlier period, belonging to the past, or no longer in general use.	The word original means the first of its kind or from which a copy or revision is made.
I like old songs.	I prefer the original version of your essay.

In the above example, reference is being made to the version of a manuscript before changes were made to it. Therefore, the word original should be used instead of old and the correct sentence will read as follows:

The Discussion section was not well-written in our original manuscript. We have rewritten this section in the revised version.

Read the following sentence:

The characteristics of the elder and the younger members of the group differed significantly.

Here the use of elder is incorrect. The correct word is older.

What's the difference?

Older	Elder
Used to compare the ages of	Used to compare the ages of people
1. people 2. animals 3. things	1. belonging to the same family 2. professional relationships

In the above example, the comparison is between people in a random group and not in a family. Therefore, older should be used instead of elder and the correct sentence will be,

The characteristics of the older and the younger members of the group differed significantly.

The grammatical term for this is	Adjective	Adjective, Noun
Other examples	They are older than all the other participants of the survey. The older dogs show these characteristics more than the younger ones. The history textbooks were older than the science ones.	It was found that the patient's elder sister had a case history of diabetes. (Adjective) She is the elder partner in the business. (Adjective) As a noun, it can be used to refer to a senior person in a community, tribe, or family. They are the elder members of the village. (Adjective) They are the village elders. (Noun)

Read the following sentence:

Before launching our food products in a new market, we consider the economic, social, and cultured factors.

Here the use of cultured is incorrect. The correct word is cultural. Both these words are adjectives derived from the word culture; however, they are used in different contexts.

What's the difference?

Cultured	Cultural
Cultured is used to describe an individual who has received a good education and is well informed about art, music, and literature.	The word cultural is used when referring to something that is related to the culture of a particular society or group, such as customs and beliefs. It is also used when referring to something that is related to music, art, theatre, literature, etc.
Mr. Darcy was a refined and cultured man.	The cultural activities of this school are admirable.

The above sentence indicates that certain factors specific to a particular society are considered before launching new products. Therefore, the word cultural should be used instead of cultured and the correct sentence will read as follows:

Before launching our food products in a new market, we consider the economic, social, and cultural factors.

Read the following example:

The 5 patients were admitted to the hospital late at night. Since all the tests had to be carried out at once, the patient's relatives had very little time to complete the formalities.

Here the use of patient's is incorrect.

Many nonnative authors get confused between nouns that can have different forms— singular and plural or possession with singular and plural. For example, the word patient can be expressed as patient, patients, patient's and patients'. All the words convey a different meaning.

What's the difference?

To refer to	One Patient	More than one patient	Something belonging to one patient	Something belonging to more than one patient
Use	Patient	Patients	Patient's	Patients'

Hence, in the above example, since we are talking about relatives of more than one patient, we must use patients' instead of patient's. The correct sentence will be,

The 5 patients were admitted to the hospital late at night. Since all the tests had to be carried out at once, the patients' relatives had very little time to complete the formalities.

Read the following sentence:

The terms of the agreement are ambivalent; therefore, I would like to get some clarifications.

Here the use of ambivalent is incorrect. The correct word is ambiguous.

What's the difference?

Ambivalent	Ambiguous
The word ambivalent implies having or showing both good and bad feelings about something or somebody.	The word ambiguous means unclear or having more than one meaning; it is also used in relation to something that is open to interpretation.
He was ambivalent about accepting the offer.	Some questions in the form are ambiguous.

In the above sentence, since the person has asked for clarifications, it is evident that s/he has not understood the terms of the agreement. Therefore, ambiguous should be used instead of ambivalent and the correct sentence will read as follows:

The terms of the agreement are ambiguous; therefore, I would like to get some clarifications.

Read the following sentence:

Shoveling is a traditional methodology to extract coal.

Here the use of methodology is incorrect. The correct word is method.

What's the difference?

Methodology	Method
This word is used to refer to a system or body of practices, procedures, and rules particular to a branch of knowledge.	This word is used to refer to a procedure or process for achieving something.
We examined the methodology of contemporary forensic science.	Which method is better for water purification—boiling or filtering?

In the above sentence, the reference is to a procedure for extracting coal. Therefore, the word method should be used instead of methodology. The correct sentence will then read as follows:

Shoveling is a traditional method to extract coal.

Read the following sentence:

Dual-color hybridization is a new alternate to fluorescence hybridization.

Here the use of alternate is incorrect. The correct word is alternative.

What's the difference?

Alternate	Alternative
The word alternate when used as a verb means to occur regularly in turns or in succession.	The word alternative refers to mutually exclusive possibilities or choices. It can also refer to a substitute or replacement.
They alternated six hours on duty and six hours off duty.	She had two alternatives—to take the crowded bus or to arrive late. Her doctor felt that antibiotic therapy was a good alternative to surgery.
When used as an adjective, it refers to any event that occurs in succession.	In a different context, alternative can refer to something that is unconventional or not standardized.
We visit them every alternate year.	Many people are turning to alternative medicine for treatment.

In the above sentence, a substitute to a method is being referred to. Therefore, alternative should be used instead of alternate and the correct sentence will read as follows:

Dual-color hybridization is a new alternative to fluorescence hybridization.

Read the following sentence:

Groundwater, which is the major source of portable water in this region, must be protected from contamination.

Here the use of portable is incorrect. The correct word is potable.

What's the difference?

Portable	Potable
This word implies that something is easy to carry or move.	This word is used to describe the quality of water. It implies that the water is safe for drinking.
They alternated six hours on duty and six hours off duty.	She had two alternatives—to take the crowded bus or to arrive late. Her doctor felt that antibiotic therapy was a good alternative to surgery.

In the above example, ground water that is used for drinking purposes is being referred to. This is clear from the phrases major source and must be protected from contamination. Therefore, potable should be used instead of portable and the correct sentence will read as follows:

Groundwater, which is the major source of potable water in this region, must be protected from contamination.

Read the following sentence:

A positive outcome of this project is waited in the near future.

Here the use of waited is incorrect. The correct word is anticipated.

What's the difference?

Wait	Anticipate
The verb wait refers to the act of remaining inactive in expectation of something and is usually used to imply a state of motionlessness or inactivity.	Anticipate denotes the act of expecting or looking forward to something as certain and does not imply a state of motionlessness.
Although the play was scheduled to begin at 8:00 p.m., the audience was still waiting at 8:30 p.m.	We anticipate that the weather will be sunny tomorrow.

In the above example, the outcome of the project is expected in the near future. Therefore, anticipated should be used instead of waited and the correct sentence will read as follows:

A positive outcome of this project is anticipated in the near future.

Read the following sentence:

I sat watching the continual flow of water over the falls.

Here the use of continual is incorrect. The correct word is continuous.

What's the difference?

Continual	Continuous
This word suggests a close, prolonged recurrence, happening again and again (regularly), i.e., it describes something that occurs repeatedly over a period of time.	This word refers to something happening without interruption, i.e., something that occurs continuously (without any breaks).
The red light blinks continually when the train is nearby.	I travelled continuously for two days.

In the above example, the flow of water occurs without any interruptions. Therefore, the word continuous and not continual should be used, and the correct sentence would read as follows:

I sat watching the continuous flow of water over the falls.


TIP: When in doubt, read the sentence and evaluate whether something occurs without interruption. If it does, the use of continuous is appropriate.

Read the following sentence:

The doctor mentioned that weight gain is a common symptom of the prescribed medicine.

Here the use of symptom is incorrect. The correct word is side effect.

What's the difference?

Symptom	Continuous
This word suggests a close, prolonged recurrence, happening again and again (regularly), i.e., it describes something that occurs repeatedly over a period of time.	This word refers to something happening without interruption, i.e., something that occurs continuously (without any breaks).
The red light blinks continually when the train is nearby.	I travelled continuously for two days.

In the above example, the flow of water occurs without any interruptions. Therefore, the word continuous and not continual should be used, and the correct sentence would read as follows:

I sat watching the continuous flow of water over the falls.


TIP: When in doubt, read the sentence and evaluate whether something occurs without interruption. If it does, the use of continuous is appropriate.

Read the following sentence:

Enclosed herewith is my article for publication in your journal.

Here the use of article is incorrect. The correct word is manuscript.

What's the difference?

Article	Manuscript
When a study, report, or essay is published, it is referred to as an article.	An unpublished study, report, or any type of research work—the document itself—is referred to as a manuscript.

In the above example, unpublished research is being referred to; therefore, the word manuscript and not article should be used. The correct sentence would read as follows:

Enclosed herewith is my manuscript for publication in your journal.

Read the following sentence:

The enzyme illustrated optimal activity at pH 7.0.

Here the use of illustrated is incorrect. The correct word is exhibited.

What's the difference?

Illustrate	Exhibit
This word implies the clarification of something through the use of examples such as images or diagrams.	This word is used to clearly imply a feature or an ability possessed by something.
The professor illustrated his notes with diagrams.	It was observed that the substance exhibits characteristics of hazardous waste.

In the above sentence, a feature of an enzyme is being referred to. Therefore, exhibited should be used instead of illustrated and the correct sentence will read as follows:

The enzyme exhibited optimal activity at pH 7.0.

The following example clearly shows the distinction between the two words:

We use diagrams to illustrate the anomalous behavior exhibited by water at 4 oC.

Read the following sentence:

The workers emigrated to the United States to fulfill their work contracts.

Here the use of emigrate is incorrect. The correct word is immigrate.

What's the difference?

Emigrate	Immigrate
Refers to the act of leaving your own country to live in another country.	Refers to the act of coming to live in a particular country after leaving your own country
The family emigrated from Germany in the 1980s.	Rand immigrated to the United States from Russia.

In the above sentence, reference is being made to workers moving to the United States. Therefore, immigrate should be used instead of emigrate and the correct sentence would read as follows:

The workers immigrated to the United States to fulfill their work contracts.

Read the following sentence:

The course's popularity required more teachers.

Here the use of required is incorrect. The correct word is necessitated.

What's the difference?

Require	Necessitate
This word refers to the act of needing something as an essential.	This word denotes the act of making something necessary or essential. It is often used to describe cause and effect relationships.
Those who intend to weave cloth require a loom.	Working at night necessitates sleeping during the daytime.

In the above example, the course's popularity did not need additional teachers, but rather caused the need for them. Therefore, the word necessitated is appropriate, and the correct sentence will read as follows:

The course's popularity necessitated more teachers.

Read the following sentences:
Further, it has been observed that inefficient business practices need to be improved.
Further, it has been observed that inefficient business practices need to be rectified.

Can the words improved and rectified be used interchangeably?
These words cannot be used interchangeably because they differ in meaning.

What's the difference?

Rectify	Improve
To refer to a change made to correct a defect	To refer to a change made to enhance existing entities
to make right or correct something that is wrong	to make (something) better than before
To use when something is	To use when something needs to be
1. incorrect 2. inefficient 3. inappropriate 4. invalid 5. inconsistent 6. inadequate, or 7. similarly if something lacks a particular quality	1. ehnanced 2. polished 3. bettered 4. beautified 5. increased

In the given example, since inefficient business practices constitute something that requires correction, it is more appropriate to use the word rectified. Hence the second sentence is correct.

Other examples
The connection fault in the installation of the device was rectified by the engineer.	The weather was pleasant in the day, and it improved toward the evening.
The company president asked the accounts manager to rectify the inequities in the salaries of the production workers.	The manuscript seemed good to read, but the editor improved it with his changes.
"That was my mistake, and I will rectify it soon."	"You speak good English, but you must improve your writing skills."
	An important means to improve production is to increase consumption?using more of the current vaccine today will decrease the burden of current influenza disease.
	In this report we show that evolutionary conservation analysis may be used to improve the specificity of an ESE prediction tool.
	It will be essential, however, to better understand the types of immune response and the generation and maintenance of an effective memory T cell response during influenza infection in order to improve future vaccine strategies.