{"id":2581,"date":"2026-11-09T00:31:16","date_gmt":"2026-11-08T19:01:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/?p=2581"},"modified":"2026-09-18T09:47:40","modified_gmt":"2026-09-18T04:17:40","slug":"singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/","title":{"rendered":"Singular\/Plural Rules and Examples from Scientific Writing"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>In English, a noun is indicated as singular or plural by its form, by its demonstrative (e.g., those, these) and by the verb. By default, words are pluralized by adding <strong>-s<\/strong>, but there are multiple exceptions in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/what-is-academic-writing-definition-types-examples-characteristics\/\">academic writing<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_85 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#The_regular_plural_-s_and_-es\" >The regular plural: -s and -es<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Irregular_plurals\" >Irregular plurals<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Countable_vs_uncountable_nouns\" >Countable vs uncountable nouns<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Plurals_of_compound_nouns\" >Plurals of compound nouns<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Plural_patterns_in_academic_English\" >Plural patterns in academic English<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Examples\" >Examples:<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Words_with_two_acceptable_plurals\" >Words with two acceptable plurals<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#False_Latin_plurals\" >False Latin plurals<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Words_that_are_commonly_confused\" >Words that are commonly confused<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Same_in_singular_and_plural\" >Same in singular and plural<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Singular_words_that_look_plural\" >Singular words that look plural<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Academic_collective_nouns\" >Academic collective nouns<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Units_and_measurements\" >Units and measurements<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Abbreviations_symbols_and_numerals\" >Abbreviations, symbols, and numerals<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Hyphenated_modifiers\" >Hyphenated modifiers<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Taxonomy_and_nomenclature\" >Taxonomy and nomenclature<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-17\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#The_%E2%80%9Cdata%E2%80%9D_question\" >The &#8220;data&#8221; question<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-18\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/#Possessives_vs_plurals\" >Possessives vs plurals<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_regular_plural_-s_and_-es\"><\/span>The regular plural: -s and -es<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Singular ending<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Plural<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Examples<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Most nouns<\/td>\n<td>add <strong>-s<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>sample \u2192 samples; result \u2192 results; gene \u2192 genes; peak \u2192 peaks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>add <strong>-es<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>gas \u2192 gases; class \u2192 classes; dish \u2192 dishes; batch \u2192 batches; box \u2192 boxes; quiz \u2192 quizes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Consonant + <strong>-y<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-y \u2192 -ies<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>study \u2192 studies; frequency \u2192 frequencies; artery \u2192 arteries; anomaly \u2192 anomalies<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Vowel + <strong>-y<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>add <strong>-s<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>array \u2192 arrays; survey \u2192 surveys; key \u2192 keys<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-o<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>varies<\/td>\n<td>potato \u2192 potatoes; tomato \u2192 tomatoes; echo \u2192 echoes; hero \u2192 heroes <strong>but<\/strong> photo \u2192 photos; ratio \u2192 ratios; zero \u2192 zeros; kilo \u2192 kilos; video \u2192 videos; embryo \u2192 embryos<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-f \/ -fe<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>often <strong>-ves<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>leaf \u2192 leaves; half \u2192 halves; knife \u2192 knives; shelf \u2192 shelves; wolf \u2192 wolves <strong>but<\/strong> roof \u2192 roofs; belief \u2192 beliefs; chief \u2192 chiefs; proof \u2192 proofs; safe \u2192 safes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Keep in mind the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>-o nouns:<\/strong> the <em>-es<\/em> forms are mostly old, fully naturalized words. Technical and abbreviated words (<em>photo<\/em>, <em>kilo<\/em>, <em>ratio<\/em>, <em>silo<\/em>, <em>proto<\/em>) take plain <em>-s<\/em>. A few allow both: <em>volcano(e)s<\/em>, <em>mosquito(e)s<\/em>, <em>tornado(e)s<\/em>, <em>zero(e)s<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>-f nouns:<\/strong> a handful take either form \u2014 <em>scarf \u2192 scarves\/scarfs<\/em>, <em>hoof \u2192 hooves\/hoofs<\/em>, <em>dwarf \u2192 dwarves\/dwarfs<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Irregular_plurals\"><\/span>Irregular plurals<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some English nouns change their vowels or take an alternative ending instead of <em>-s<\/em>. These must be memorized, but luckily there are comparatively few of these.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Type<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Examples<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Vowel change (mutation)<\/td>\n<td>man \u2192 men; woman \u2192 women; foot \u2192 feet; tooth \u2192 teeth; goose \u2192 geese; mouse \u2192 mice; louse \u2192 lice<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-en<\/strong> plural<\/td>\n<td>child \u2192 children; ox \u2192 oxen<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Zero plural (same form both ways)<\/td>\n<td>sheep, deer, fish, series, species, aircraft, offspring, salmon, trout, means<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><em>Fish<\/em> and <em>fishes<\/em> are both correct but differ in sense: <em>fish<\/em> counts individuals, <em>fishes<\/em> counts species or kinds. The same distinction applies to <em>peoples<\/em> (ethnic groups) versus <em>people<\/em> (persons).<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Countable_vs_uncountable_nouns\"><\/span>Countable vs uncountable nouns<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/countable-vs-uncountable-nouns-academic-writing\/\">Countable nouns<\/a> can be numbered and have both forms. Uncountable (mass) nouns cannot be pluralized and cannot take <em>a\/an<\/em>.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><strong>Countable<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Uncountable<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Article<\/td>\n<td>a sample, an experiment<\/td>\n<td>equipment, research<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Plural<\/td>\n<td>samples, experiments<\/td>\n<td>equipment, research<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Quantifiers<\/td>\n<td>many, few, several, a number of<\/td>\n<td>much, little, a great deal of, a large amount of<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Counting phrase<\/td>\n<td>three samples<\/td>\n<td>three <strong>pieces of<\/strong> equipment<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h4>Common uncountable nouns in academic writing<\/h4>\n<p>These take no plural and no <a href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/definite-article-indefinite-article-academic-writing\/#The_Indefinite_Articles\">indefinite article<\/a>. Substituting a plural is one of the most frequent errors in manuscripts by non-native speakers.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Uncountable noun<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Right<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>research<\/td>\n<td>recent research shows; recent <strong>studies<\/strong> show<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>evidence<\/td>\n<td>several <strong>lines of evidence<\/strong>; considerable evidence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>equipment<\/td>\n<td>three <strong>pieces of equipment<\/strong>; three <strong>instruments<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>information<\/td>\n<td>information <strong>was<\/strong> collected<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>literature<\/td>\n<td>the literature <strong>suggests<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>software<\/td>\n<td>two <strong>software packages<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>knowledge<\/td>\n<td>our knowledge<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>feedback, personnel, apparatus, advice, progress<\/td>\n<td>treat as mass nouns<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Plurals_of_compound_nouns\"><\/span>Plurals of compound nouns<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some compound nouns are pluralized in specific ways:<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Compound<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Plural<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Main noun<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>mother-in-law<\/td>\n<td>mothers-in-law<\/td>\n<td>mother<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>editor-in-chief<\/td>\n<td>editors-in-chief<\/td>\n<td>editor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>passer-by<\/td>\n<td>passers-by<\/td>\n<td>passer<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>attorney general<\/td>\n<td>attorneys general<\/td>\n<td>attorney<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cul-de-sac<\/td>\n<td>culs-de-sac<\/td>\n<td>cul<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cross-section<\/td>\n<td>cross-sections<\/td>\n<td>section (final)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>follow-up<\/td>\n<td>follow-ups<\/td>\n<td>up (final)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>spoonful<\/td>\n<td>spoonfuls<\/td>\n<td>Final<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>When the compound is written as one word, the plural simply goes on the end: <em>databases, subsets, timepoints, wavelengths<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Plural_patterns_in_academic_English\"><\/span>Plural patterns in academic English<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Most of the irregular plurals in scientific English follow one of six patterns inherited from Latin or Greek.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Ending<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Plural<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Examples (singular \u2192 plural)<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-um<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-a<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>bacterium \u2192 bacteria; datum \u2192 data; medium \u2192 media; ovum \u2192 ova; septum \u2192 septa; stratum \u2192 strata; flagellum \u2192 flagella; cilium \u2192 cilia; epithelium \u2192 epithelia; inoculum \u2192 inocula; erratum \u2192 errata<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-us<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-i<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>nucleus \u2192 nuclei; locus \u2192 loci; fungus \u2192 fungi; bacillus \u2192 bacilli; coccus \u2192 cocci; stimulus \u2192 stimuli; villus \u2192 villi; thrombus \u2192 thrombi; radius \u2192 radii; alumnus \u2192 alumni<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-a<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-ae<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>larva \u2192 larvae; alga \u2192 algae; vertebra \u2192 vertebrae; pupa \u2192 pupae; hypha \u2192 hyphae; lamina \u2192 laminae; ulna \u2192 ulnae<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-on<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-a<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>criterion \u2192 criteria; phenomenon \u2192 phenomena; ganglion \u2192 ganglia; mitochondrion \u2192 mitochondria; protozoon \u2192 protozoa<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-is<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-es<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>analysis \u2192 analyses; hypothesis \u2192 hypotheses; basis \u2192 bases; axis \u2192 axes; diagnosis \u2192 diagnoses; prognosis \u2192 prognoses; thesis \u2192 theses; synthesis \u2192 syntheses; metastasis \u2192 metastases; anastomosis \u2192 anastomoses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>-ex \/ -ix<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>-ices<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>matrix \u2192 matrices; vertex \u2192 vertices; vortex \u2192 vortices; cortex \u2192 cortices; apex \u2192 apices; helix \u2192 helices; calyx \u2192 calyces<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>A smaller Greek group takes <strong>-x \u2192 -ges<\/strong> or <strong>-ma \u2192 -mata<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>phalanx \u2192 phalanges; larynx \u2192 larynges; meninx \u2192 meninges; thorax \u2192 thoraces<\/li>\n<li>stoma \u2192 stomata; carcinoma \u2192 carcinomata (though <em>carcinomas<\/em> is now standard in clinical writing)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Examples\"><\/span>Examples:<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>\u2717 &#8220;A single bacteria was recovered from each plate.&#8221; \u2192 \u2713 &#8220;A single <strong>bacterium<\/strong> was recovered.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>\u2717 &#8220;The main criteria for inclusion was age over 60.&#8221; \u2192 \u2713 &#8220;The main <strong>criterion<\/strong> for inclusion <strong>was<\/strong> age over 60.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>\u2717 &#8220;This phenomena has been reported previously.&#8221; \u2192 \u2713 &#8220;This <strong>phenomenon<\/strong> has been reported previously.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>\u2717 &#8220;Cells were grown in a liquid media.&#8221; \u2192 \u2713 &#8220;Cells were grown in a liquid <strong>medium<\/strong>.&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Words_with_two_acceptable_plurals\"><\/span>Words with two acceptable plurals<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some borrowed words have developed an anglicized plural alongside the classical one. In several cases the two forms have split by meaning, and using the wrong one reads as careless.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Singular<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Classical plural<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>English plural<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Convention<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>appendix<\/td>\n<td>appendices<\/td>\n<td>appendixes<\/td>\n<td><em>Appendices<\/em> for supplementary document sections; <em>appendixes<\/em> for the anatomical organ<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>index<\/td>\n<td>indices<\/td>\n<td>indexes<\/td>\n<td><em>Indices<\/em> for mathematical subscripts, exponents, and economic measures; <em>indexes<\/em> for alphabetical lists in books<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>formula<\/td>\n<td>formulae<\/td>\n<td>formulas<\/td>\n<td><em>Formulae<\/em> is common in chemistry and mathematics; <em>formulas<\/em> is acceptable everywhere and now more usual<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>antenna<\/td>\n<td>antennae<\/td>\n<td>antennas<\/td>\n<td><em>Antennae<\/em> on insects; <em>antennas<\/em> on radios<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cannula<\/td>\n<td>cannulae<\/td>\n<td>cannulas<\/td>\n<td>Both used; follow your target journal\u2019s style<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>focus<\/td>\n<td>foci<\/td>\n<td>focuses<\/td>\n<td><em>Foci<\/em> for lesions, optical points, and outbreaks; <em>focuses<\/em> mainly as a verb form<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>curriculum<\/td>\n<td>curricula<\/td>\n<td>curriculums<\/td>\n<td><em>Curricula<\/em> strongly preferred<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>symposium<\/td>\n<td>symposia<\/td>\n<td>symposiums<\/td>\n<td><em>Symposia<\/em> preferred<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>memorandum<\/td>\n<td>memoranda<\/td>\n<td>memorandums<\/td>\n<td><em>Memoranda<\/em> preferred in formal writing<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Once you choose a form, use it consistently throughout the manuscript.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"False_Latin_plurals\"><\/span>False Latin plurals<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Not every word ending in <strong>-us<\/strong> is a Latin noun. Several common science words take regular <strong>-es<\/strong> plurals, and &#8220;correcting&#8221; them produces a well-known category of error.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Word<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Correct plural<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>virus<\/td>\n<td>Viruses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>apparatus<\/td>\n<td>apparatus <em>or<\/em> apparatuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>prospectus<\/td>\n<td>prospectuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>status<\/td>\n<td>statuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>syllabus<\/td>\n<td>syllabuses <em>or<\/em> syllabi<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>octopus<\/td>\n<td>octopuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>campus<\/td>\n<td>campuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>bonus<\/td>\n<td>bonuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>ignoramus<\/td>\n<td>ignoramuses<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Words_that_are_commonly_confused\"><\/span>Words that are commonly confused<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Same_in_singular_and_plural\"><\/span>Same in singular and plural<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Number is signalled only by the article, demonstrative (this vs these), or verb:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Species<\/em>: &#8220;This <strong>species is<\/strong> endemic to Borneo.&#8221; \/ &#8220;These <strong>species are<\/strong> morphologically similar.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li><em>Series<\/em>: &#8220;A <strong>series of<\/strong> dilutions <strong>was<\/strong> prepared.&#8221; \/ &#8220;Three <strong>series were<\/strong> run in parallel.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li><em>apparatus<\/em>, <em>means<\/em>, <em>forceps<\/em>, <em>fish<\/em> (though <em>fishes<\/em> denotes multiple species), <em>sheep<\/em>, <em>deer<\/em>, <em>offspring<\/em>, <em>aircraft<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Singular_words_that_look_plural\"><\/span>Singular words that look plural<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Names of disciplines ending in <strong>-ics<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>&#8220;<strong>Statistics is<\/strong> a required course for all graduate students.&#8221; (the field)<\/li>\n<li>&#8220;These <strong>statistics are<\/strong> drawn from the national registry.&#8221; (the numbers)<\/li>\n<li>Similarly: <em>mathematics, physics, genetics, kinetics, dynamics, mechanics, optics, economics, informatics<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Also singular: <em>news<\/em>, <em>mumps<\/em>, <em>measles<\/em>, <em>rickets<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Academic_collective_nouns\"><\/span>Academic collective nouns<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Collective nouns such as <em>cohort<\/em>, <em>group<\/em>, <em>team<\/em>, <em>committee<\/em>, <em>majority<\/em>, <em>population<\/em>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>American usage treats them as singular: &#8220;The <strong>cohort was<\/strong> followed for five years.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>British usage allows plural when members act individually: &#8220;The <strong>committee were<\/strong> divided in their assessment.&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Pick one convention and stay with it.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Units_and_measurements\"><\/span>Units and measurements<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Here are the main rules around pluralization of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/numbers-units-measure-academic-writing\/\">numbers and units<\/a>.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Rule<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Unit <strong>symbols<\/strong> never take <em>-s<\/em><\/td>\n<td>5 kg, 10 mL, 25 \u00b0C, 3 h, 40 mg \u2014 never , ,<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Unit <strong>names<\/strong> spelled out do pluralize<\/td>\n<td>five kilograms, ten milliliters, three hours<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Exception: <em>lux<\/em>, <em>hertz<\/em>, <em>siemens<\/em>, <em>lumen<\/em> symbols and some names stay fixed<\/td>\n<td>50 lux, 60 Hz<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>A space separates number and symbol (except % and \u00b0)<\/td>\n<td>10 mg, 37\u00b0C, 95%<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Abbreviations_symbols_and_numerals\"><\/span>Abbreviations, symbols, and numerals<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Form plurals of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/abbreviations-academic-writing\/\">abbreviations<\/a> by adding <strong>-s with no apostrophe<\/strong>: ELISAs, PCRs, ROIs, SNPs, CTs, PhDs, IQs.<\/li>\n<li>Decades and number groups: &#8220;the <strong>1990s<\/strong>,&#8221; &#8220;three <strong>CD4s<\/strong>,&#8221; &#8220;values in the <strong>20s<\/strong>.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>Italic statistical symbols pluralize with a <strong>roman<\/strong> <em>s<\/em>: <em>n<\/em>s, <em>p<\/em>s, <em>r<\/em>s. Many journals prefer rephrasing (&#8220;the sample sizes&#8221;) to avoid the awkward form.<\/li>\n<li><em>et al.<\/em> always refers to multiple authors and takes a plural verb: &#8220;Nakamura et al. <strong>report<\/strong> a similar effect.&#8221; (The period after <em>al.<\/em> is required; <em>et<\/em> takes none.)<\/li>\n<li><em>sp.<\/em> is one unnamed species; <em>spp.<\/em> is several: &#8220;<em>Pseudomonas<\/em> <strong>sp.<\/strong> was isolated&#8221; \/ &#8220;several <em>Candida<\/em> <strong>spp.<\/strong> were detected.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li><em>e.g.<\/em> and <em>i.e.<\/em> are unchanged regardless of how many items follow.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Hyphenated_modifiers\"><\/span>Hyphenated modifiers<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When a measurement modifies a noun, it becomes singular and hyphenated:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>a <strong>5-year<\/strong> follow-up (not )<\/li>\n<li>a <strong>20-mg<\/strong> dose, two <strong>20-mg<\/strong> doses<\/li>\n<li>a <strong>10-fold<\/strong> increase<\/li>\n<li>a <strong>three-week<\/strong> incubation<\/li>\n<li>a <strong>96-well<\/strong> plate<\/li>\n<li>a <strong>two-step<\/strong> protocol<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The same applies to other attributive nouns: a <strong>sample<\/strong> collection protocol, <strong>patient<\/strong> records, <strong>cell<\/strong> viability, <strong>dose<\/strong>\u2013response curve. The exceptions are where the plural is fixed by convention: <em>systems biology<\/em>, <em>materials science<\/em>, <em>sports medicine<\/em>, <em>arms race<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Taxonomy_and_nomenclature\"><\/span>Taxonomy and nomenclature<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Genus names are singular and capitalized and italicized; species epithets are lowercase: <em>Escherichia coli<\/em>. The genus plural is <em>genera<\/em>; the rank <em>taxon<\/em> pluralizes to <em>taxa<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li>A species name is grammatically singular even when the organisms are many: &#8220;<em>E. coli<\/em> <strong>was<\/strong> grown overnight.&#8221; To refer to countable organisms, add a noun: &#8220;<em>E. coli<\/em> <strong>cells were<\/strong> grown overnight.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>Strain designations have a noun after them for plurals: &#8220;three <em>S. aureus<\/em> <strong>isolates<\/strong>&#8220;<\/li>\n<li>Gene symbols follow species-specific conventions and do not pluralize; write &#8220;the <em>TP53<\/em> and <em>BRCA1<\/em> <strong>genes<\/strong>.&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"The_%E2%80%9Cdata%E2%80%9D_question\"><\/span>The &#8220;data&#8221; question<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p><em>Data<\/em> is the plural of <em>datum<\/em>, and most scientific style guides still enforce that:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Plural by rule:<\/strong> APA, AMA, CSE, <em>Nature<\/em>, and most society journals use wording like &#8220;The data <strong>were<\/strong> analyzed using R.&#8221; &#8220;These data <strong>suggest<\/strong> a dose-dependent effect.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li><strong>Singular mass noun:<\/strong> increasingly accepted in computing, business, and some general-interest publications, e.g., &#8220;The data <strong>is<\/strong> stored on a secure server.&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><em>Datum<\/em> is used mainly in surveying and geodesy, where it means a reference point. In most manuscripts, use <em>data point<\/em>, <em>value<\/em>, or <em>observation<\/em> for the singular rather than <em>datum<\/em>, and keep the plural verb unless the target journal says otherwise.<\/p>\n<p>There\u2019s also debate around the use of <strong>media<\/strong> (plural of <em>medium<\/em>), which stays firmly plural in laboratory contexts, and <strong>agenda<\/strong>, which is now considered singular (<em>agendas<\/em> is now the normal plural).<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Possessives_vs_plurals\"><\/span>Possessives vs plurals<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/apostrophe-academic-writing\/\">apostrophe<\/a> signals possession, never number. This is the single most common punctuation error in English writing.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Form<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Meaning<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>samples<\/td>\n<td>plural<\/td>\n<td>The samples were frozen.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>sample&#8217;s<\/td>\n<td>singular possessive<\/td>\n<td>The sample&#8217;s pH was 7.2.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>samples&#8217;<\/td>\n<td>plural possessive<\/td>\n<td>The samples&#8217; pH values ranged from 6.8 to 7.4.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>(as plural)<\/td>\n<td>error<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>For irregular plurals not ending in <em>-s<\/em>, add <em>&#8216;s<\/em>: <em>children&#8217;s, men&#8217;s, mice&#8217;s<\/em>. For singular nouns already ending in <em>-s<\/em>, both <em>Jones&#8217;s<\/em> and <em>Jones&#8217;<\/em> are accepted so check recent issues from your target journal and follow that.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"In English, a noun is indicated as singular or plural by its form, by its demonstrative (e.g., those, these) and by the verb. By default, words are pluralized by adding -s, but there are multiple exceptions in academic writing. The regular plural: -s and -es Singular ending Plural Examples Most nouns add -s sample \u2192 [&hellip;]","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":2586,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_ayudawp_aiss_exclude":false,"_ayudawp_aiss_summary":"In English, a noun is indicated as singular or plural by its form, by its demonstrative (e.g., those, these) and by the verb. Many journals prefer rephrasing (\"the sample sizes\") to avoid the awkward form. et al. always refers to multiple authors and takes a plural verb: \"Nakamura et al. report a similar effect.\" (The period after al. is required; et takes none.). sp. is one unnamed species; spp. is several: \"Pseudomonas sp. was isolated\" \/ \"several Candida spp. were detected.\". e.g. and i.e. are unchanged regardless of how many items follow. &nbsp;. There\u2019s also debate around the use of media (plural of medium), which stays firmly plural in laboratory contexts, and agenda, which is now considered singular (agendas is now the normal plural).","_ayudawp_aiss_summary_provider":"extractive","_ayudawp_aiss_summary_hash":"bee13c6046e1b8accef6b0779c893528f275fea0","_jetpack_hide_featured_image":false,"_jetpack_featured_image_duplicate_dismissed":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[5],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2581","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-latest-articles"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.8 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Singular\/Plural Rules and Examples from Scientific Writing - Educational Articles For Researchers, Students And Authors - Editage Blog<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/blog\/singular-plural-rules-and-examples-from-scientific-writing\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Singular\/Plural Rules and Examples from Scientific Writing - Educational Articles For Researchers, Students And Authors - Editage Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"In English, a noun is indicated as singular or plural by its form, by its demonstrative (e.g., those, these) and by the verb. 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