{"id":907,"date":"2026-04-15T07:11:14","date_gmt":"2026-04-15T01:41:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/insights\/basic-guidelines-on-using-upper-case-versus-lower-case-in-scientific-writing\/"},"modified":"2026-05-27T11:07:40","modified_gmt":"2026-05-27T05:37:40","slug":"basic-guidelines-on-using-upper-case-versus-lower-case-in-scientific-writing","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/insights\/basic-guidelines-on-using-upper-case-versus-lower-case-in-scientific-writing","title":{"rendered":"Using capitals in scientific writing: Rules, tips, examples"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"907\" class=\"elementor elementor-907\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fcaa7c5 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"fcaa7c5\" data-element_type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1b9dfd17 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"1b9dfd17\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Jump to Contents<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769856\">Why Capitalization Matters in Academic Writing<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769857\">Core Capitalization Rules<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769858\">Capitalization in Titles and Headings: Sentence Case vs Title Case<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769859\">Capitalization in the Life Sciences<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769860\">Capitalization in Medicine and Clinical Sciences<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769861\">Capitalization in the Physical Sciences<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769862\">Capitalization in the Social Sciences<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769863\">Capitalization in the Humanities<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769864\">The Trickiest Cases: A Quick-Reference Table<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769865\">Common Mistakes to Avoid<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#_Toc230769866\">Summary of Capitalization Rules Across Major Style Guides<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2>Introduction<\/h2>\r\nCapitalization is one of the most nuanced conventions in academic and scientific writing. Get it wrong and you signal unfamiliarity with your field; get it right and your manuscript looks polished, authoritative, and publication-ready. The difficulty is that capitalization rules in scientific writing are not uniform across disciplines, and even within a single field, style guides disagree. Capitalization is certainly a problem that confronts writers and editors, and the space devoted to capitalization by many style guides is one indication of how common the problem is:<em>\u00a0New Hart\u2019s Rules<sup>1<\/sup><\/em>,<em>\u00a0Scientific Style and Format<\/em><sup>2<\/sup>, and<em>\u00a0AMA Manual of Style<\/em><sup>3<\/sup>\u00a0each devotes a whole chapter to it.\r\n\r\nThis guide covers the core principles that apply across all sciences and humanities, then drills into the conventions specific to life sciences, medicine, physical sciences, social sciences, and the humanities. It also highlights the most common mistakes researchers make and how to fix them.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769856\"><\/a>Why Capitalization Matters in Academic Writing<\/h2>\r\nCapitalization serves two functions in scientific prose:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>grammatical<\/strong> (marking the start of a sentence, signaling proper nouns) and<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>semantic<\/strong> (distinguishing a specific named entity from a general concept).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nMisuse in either direction creates confusion.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Over-capitalization<\/strong> is the most common error. Writers capitalize words to signal importance: &#8220;the Study found,&#8221; &#8220;the Gene was expressed,&#8221; &#8220;Western Medicine.&#8221; None of these warrants a capital letter.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Under-capitalization<\/strong> of true proper nouns like names, places, and established theories, makes writing look careless.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Inconsistency<\/strong> within a single manuscript is perhaps the most damaging pattern, suggesting a lack of editorial control.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe baseline rule, shared by virtually every style guide (APA, AMA, Chicago, CSE, MLA), is this:\r\n\r\nCapitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives; use lowercase for common nouns and general concepts.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769857\"><\/a>Core Capitalization Rules<\/h2>\r\n<h3>1. First Word of a Sentence<\/h3>\r\nEvery sentence begins with a capital letter. This rule seems self-evident, but two scientific writing situations complicate it.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lowercase-first terms at the start of a sentence.<\/strong> Some scientific terms are, by convention, always written with a lowercase first letter even at the start of a sentence. In these cases, the term retains its lowercase form, and you rewrite the sentence to avoid beginning with it, or accept the lowercase.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Term<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Correct at sentence start<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>pH<\/td>\r\n<td><em>pH values ranged from 6.2 to 7.4.<\/em> (acceptable)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>mRNA<\/td>\r\n<td><em>mRNA was extracted using TRIzol reagent.<\/em> (acceptable)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><em>e<\/em>-commerce<\/td>\r\n<td>Rewrite: <em>Online commerce has disrupted retail.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Chemical names with italicized prefixes.<\/strong> Compounds such as <em>cis<\/em>-, <em>trans<\/em>-, <em>ortho<\/em>-, and <em>tert<\/em>&#8211; retain their italicized lowercase prefix at the start of a sentence, but the root word is capitalized normally.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>tert<\/em>-Butanol was added to the mixture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>cis<\/em>-Platin was administered at a dose of 75 mg\/m\u00b2.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>2. Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives<\/h3>\r\nA proper noun names a specific, unique entity: a person, place, institution, or formally designated thing. A proper adjective is derived from a proper noun.\r\n<h4>Capitalize:<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Named individuals: Charles Darwin, Marie Curie, Sigmund Freud<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Geographic locations: the Amazon Basin, the Sahara Desert, the North Sea<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Institutions and organizations: the World Health Organization, the National Institutes of Health, Harvard Medical School<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Formally named theories, laws, and scales when bearing a person&#8217;s name: Newton&#8217;s Second Law of Motion, the Likert scale, the Richter scale, the Linnaean system<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Do not capitalize:<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Generic references to the same concepts: <em>the law of gravity<\/em>, <em>a rating scale<\/em>, <em>a classification system<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>3. Titles and Headings<\/h3>\r\n<strong>In titles of papers, books, and journal articles<\/strong>, most style guides use either title case (all significant words capitalized) or sentence case (only first word + proper nouns capitalized).\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Style guide<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Approach<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>APA (7th ed.)<\/td>\r\n<td>Sentence case for article titles; title case for journal names<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Cognitive flexibility and working memory in bilingual children. Psychological Science<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Chicago<\/td>\r\n<td>Title case for most titles<\/td>\r\n<td><em>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>AMA<\/td>\r\n<td>Title case for book titles; sentence case for article titles<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Harrison&#8217;s Principles of Internal Medicine<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>CSE<\/td>\r\n<td>Sentence case for article titles<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Effects of temperature on coral bleaching in the Great Barrier Reef<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>In running headings within a paper<\/strong> (e.g., Introduction, Methods, Discussion), most scientific journals use title case for main section headers and sentence case for subheadings, but always defer to the target journal&#8217;s author guidelines.\r\n<h3>4. After a Colon<\/h3>\r\nWhether to capitalize the first word after a colon depends on what follows:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Capitalize<\/strong> if an independent clause follows: <em>This study addresses one central question: What drives antibiotic resistance in community settings?<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Do not capitalize<\/strong> if a list or dependent phrase follows: <em>Three variables were measured: temperature, pressure, and humidity.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Capitalize each clause<\/strong> when multiple independent clauses follow a colon: <em>Two questions guided this inquiry: What causes neuronal apoptosis in early Alzheimer&#8217;s disease? How can this process be slowed?<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769858\"><\/a>Capitalization in Titles and Headings: Sentence Case vs Title Case<\/h2>\r\nTwo capitalization styles govern headings, titles, and subheadings in scientific writing: <strong>title case<\/strong> and <strong>sentence case<\/strong>.\r\n<h3>What is Title Case?<\/h3>\r\nIn title case, capitalize the first letter of most words. The exceptions are:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Articles:<\/strong> <em>a<\/em>, <em>an<\/em>, <em>the<\/em> (unless first or last word)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Short prepositions:<\/strong> <em>in<\/em>, <em>on<\/em>, <em>at<\/em>, <em>by<\/em>, <em>for<\/em>, <em>of<\/em>, <em>up<\/em>, <em>to<\/em> (unless first or last word)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Coordinating conjunctions:<\/strong> <em>and<\/em>, <em>but<\/em>, <em>or<\/em>, <em>nor<\/em>, <em>so<\/em>, <em>yet<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>The &#8220;to&#8221; in infinitives:<\/strong> <em>How to Measure Cortisol Levels<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nExample: <em>The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Working Memory in Adolescents<\/em>\r\n<h3>What is Sentence Case?<\/h3>\r\nIn sentence case, capitalize only the first word of the title and any proper nouns or proper adjectives.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Everything else remains lowercase, including words that feel important<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Proper nouns (gene names, place names, named scales) are still capitalized and so are abbreviations that typically capitalized (USA, WHO, DNA, etc.).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The first word after a colon is also capitalized in some styles<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nExample: <em>The effects of sleep deprivation on working memory in adolescents<\/em>\r\n<h3>Title case vs sentence case across major style guides<\/h3>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Context<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Title case<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Sentence case<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>APA journal article titles<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>APA journal <em>names<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Chicago book and article titles<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>CSE journal article titles<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>AMA book titles<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>AMA article titles<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Most journal section headings<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Most journal subheadings<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2717<\/td>\r\n<td>\u2713<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<strong>\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<strong>The safest habit:<\/strong> check the style guide specified in your target journal&#8217;s author guidelines and look at a recent published article in that journal to confirm.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769859\"><\/a>Capitalization in the Life Sciences<\/h2>\r\nLife sciences (biology, ecology, genetics, microbiology, biochemistry) have some of the most specific capitalization conventions in all of academia.\r\n<h3>Taxonomic Names<\/h3>\r\nThe binomial nomenclature system follows strict capitalization rules established by the International Code of Nomenclature:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Genus<\/strong> names are always capitalized and italicized: <em>Homo<\/em>, <em>Escherichia<\/em>, <em>Quercus<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Species<\/strong> epithets are always lowercase and italicized: <em>Homo sapiens<\/em>, <em>Escherichia coli<\/em>, <em>Quercus robur<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Higher taxonomic ranks<\/strong> (family, order, class, phylum, kingdom) are capitalized when used as formal names, but lowercase when used descriptively<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Formal name (capitalize)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Descriptive use (lowercase)<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Mammalia<\/td>\r\n<td>mammals<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Rosaceae<\/td>\r\n<td>the rose family<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Proteobacteria<\/td>\r\n<td>proteobacteria<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Chordata<\/td>\r\n<td>chordates<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<strong>Abbreviated genus names<\/strong> (<em>E. coli<\/em>, <em>H. sapiens<\/em>) follow the same rules: capitalized abbreviation, lowercase species epithet, both italicized.\r\n<h3>Genes and Proteins<\/h3>\r\nGene and protein nomenclature follows conventions set by bodies such as HUGO (for human genes) and MGI (for mouse genes). The rules differ by organism and between genes and their protein products.\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Entity<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Convention<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Human gene symbol<\/td>\r\n<td>Italicized, all caps<\/td>\r\n<td><em>BRCA1<\/em>, <em>TP53<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Human protein<\/td>\r\n<td>Roman (non-italic), all caps<\/td>\r\n<td>BRCA1, TP53<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Mouse gene symbol<\/td>\r\n<td>Italicized, first letter cap only<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Brca1<\/em>, <em>Trp53<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Mouse protein<\/td>\r\n<td>Roman, all caps<\/td>\r\n<td>BRCA1, TRP53<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Drosophila gene<\/td>\r\n<td>Italicized, all lowercase or initial cap (by convention)<\/td>\r\n<td><em>wingless<\/em> (<em>wg<\/em>), <em>Notch<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<strong>Common error:<\/strong> Capitalizing a gene when referring to the protein, or italicizing the protein name.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u2717 The patient had a mutation in<em> BRCA1 <\/em>protein<em>.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 The patient had a mutation in the <em>BRCA1<\/em> gene; the BRCA1 protein was absent.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Biological Terms<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Common names of organisms:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>fruit fly<\/em>, <em>gray wolf<\/em>, <em>bread mold<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Viruses:<\/strong> lowercase unless a proper noun is included (<em>influenza virus<\/em>, <em>Ebola virus<\/em>, <em>SARS-CoV-2<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Biological processes:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>apoptosis<\/em>, <em>photosynthesis<\/em>, <em>meiosis<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769860\"><\/a>Capitalization in Medicine and Clinical Sciences<\/h2>\r\nMedical writing follows AMA (American Medical Association) style in most journals, with some journals adopting their own variations.\r\n<h3>Diseases and Conditions<\/h3>\r\nThe AMA Manual of Style is clear: <strong>most disease names are lowercase<\/strong>, even when they feel important.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u2717 <em>The patient was diagnosed with Diabetes Mellitus Type 2.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 <em>The patient was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus.<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nHowever, diseases <strong>named after people (eponyms)<\/strong> retain the proper noun but often drop the possessive apostrophe in modern AMA style:\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Older form<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Modern AMA style<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Alzheimer&#8217;s disease<\/td>\r\n<td>Alzheimer disease<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Parkinson&#8217;s disease<\/td>\r\n<td>Parkinson disease<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Crohn&#8217;s disease<\/td>\r\n<td>Crohn disease<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Down&#8217;s syndrome<\/td>\r\n<td>Down syndrome<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNote: Some journals and style guides still use the possessive form. Always follow the target journal.\r\n<h3>Capitalize:<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Formal diagnostic criteria names: <em>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Named syndromes used as a proper noun in full form: <em>Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome<\/em> (but <em>AIDS<\/em> in subsequent references)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Drugs and Medications<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Generic drug names:<\/strong> always lowercase (<em>metformin<\/em>, <em>ibuprofen<\/em>, <em>atorvastatin<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Brand\/proprietary names:<\/strong> always capitalized (<em>Glucophage<\/em>, <em>Advil<\/em>, <em>Lipitor<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Drug class names:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>beta-blockers<\/em>, <em>ACE inhibitors<\/em>, <em>statins<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Anatomical Terms<\/h3>\r\nAnatomical terminology follows Terminologia Anatomica. Most structures are lowercase in running text:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>the left ventricle<\/em>, <em>the hippocampus<\/em>, <em>the brachial plexus<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nCapitalize only when a proper name is embedded: <em>the Circle of Willis<\/em>, <em>the Bundle of His<\/em>, <em>Broca&#8217;s area<\/em> (but <em>Broca area<\/em> in modern style).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769861\"><\/a>Capitalization in the Physical Sciences<\/h2>\r\nPhysics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth sciences have their own distinct traditions.\r\n<h3>Units and Measurements<\/h3>\r\nThis is a frequent source of error. The rule: the unit name is lowercase; the symbol is capitalized if derived from a proper name.\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Unit<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Symbol<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Capitalized?<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>newton<\/td>\r\n<td>N<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes (named after Isaac Newton)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>pascal<\/td>\r\n<td>Pa<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes (named after Blaise Pascal)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>kelvin<\/td>\r\n<td>K<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes (named after Lord Kelvin)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>meter<\/td>\r\n<td>m<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>kilogram<\/td>\r\n<td>kg<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>second<\/td>\r\n<td>s<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u2717 <em>The force was measured in Newtons.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 <em>The force was measured in newtons (N).<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Note:<\/strong> &#8220;Kelvin&#8221; (the scale) is capitalized; &#8220;kelvin&#8221; (the unit) is lowercase: <em>The sample was cooled to 4 kelvin (4 K).<\/em>\r\n<h3>Chemical Names and Elements<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Element names:<\/strong> always lowercase in running text (<em>hydrogen<\/em>, <em>carbon<\/em>, <em>uranium<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Element symbols:<\/strong> always capitalized as given in the periodic table (<em>H<\/em>, <em>C<\/em>, <em>U<\/em>, <em>Fe<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Chemical compound names:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>sulfuric acid<\/em>, <em>sodium chloride<\/em>, <em>ethanol<\/em>) unless containing a proper noun (<em>Fehling&#8217;s solution<\/em>, <em>Folin\u2013Ciocalteu reagent<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Astronomical and Earth Science Terms<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Named celestial bodies:<\/strong> capitalize (<em>Mars<\/em>, <em>the Milky Way<\/em>, <em>the Andromeda Galaxy<\/em>, <em>Pluto<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Generic terms:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>a galaxy<\/em>, <em>a planet<\/em>, <em>a nebula<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Sun and Moon:<\/strong> capitalize when used as proper astronomical names (<em>the Moon&#8217;s surface<\/em>, <em>solar output from the Sun<\/em>); lowercase when used generically (<em>the moon was full<\/em>, <em>she sat in the sun<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Geological periods and epochs:<\/strong> capitalize formal names (<em>the Cretaceous Period<\/em>, <em>the Pleistocene Epoch<\/em>, <em>the Jurassic<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769862\"><\/a>Capitalization in the Social Sciences<\/h2>\r\nPsychology, sociology, economics, political science, and anthropology largely follow APA (7th edition) style.\r\n<h3>Psychological Constructs and Tests<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>General psychological constructs:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>working memory<\/em>, <em>self-efficacy<\/em>, <em>emotional regulation<\/em>, <em>executive function<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Named psychological tests and scales:<\/strong> capitalize the full official name (<em>Beck Depression Inventory<\/em>, <em>Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory<\/em>, <em>the Stroop Color and Word Test<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Shortened references:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>the inventory<\/em>, <em>the scale<\/em>, <em>the test<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Theories and Models<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Named theories:<\/strong> capitalize the full name when using it as a formal designation (<em>Cognitive Load Theory<\/em>, <em>Attachment Theory<\/em>, <em>Social Learning Theory<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>General descriptive references:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>a cognitive load framework<\/em>, <em>attachment behaviors<\/em>, <em>social learning processes<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Example (APA style):<\/strong> <em>Bandura&#8217;s Social Learning Theory proposes that behavior is acquired through observation. Social learning mechanisms have since been identified in non-human primates.<\/em>\r\n<h3>Groups, Identities, and Populations<\/h3>\r\nAPA 7th edition made important updates here: racial and ethnic group names are capitalized.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 <em>Black<\/em>, <em>White<\/em>, <em>Indigenous<\/em>, <em>Latino<\/em>, <em>Asian American<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 <em>People with disabilities<\/em>, <em>autistic individuals<\/em>, <em>deaf community<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Do not capitalize<\/strong> general descriptors used attributively: <em>the urban population<\/em>, <em>low-income households<\/em>, <em>rural communities<\/em>.\r\n<h3>Research Terminology<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Conditions and groups in a study:<\/strong> lowercase in general use (<em>the control group<\/em>, <em>the experimental condition<\/em>, <em>participants<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Formal condition names in a specific study:<\/strong> can be capitalized for clarity (<em>the Treatment Group<\/em>, <em>the Waitlist Control Condition<\/em>). APA permits this when referring to a specific group in a specific study<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769863\"><\/a>Capitalization in the Humanities<\/h2>\r\nHistory, literature, philosophy, linguistics, and cultural studies follow Chicago style (for most journals) or MLA for literature.\r\n<h3>Historical Periods and Events<\/h3>\r\nCapitalize formally recognized historical periods and named events:\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Capitalize<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Do not capitalize<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>the Renaissance<\/td>\r\n<td>the rebirth of classical learning<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>the Industrial Revolution<\/td>\r\n<td>the industrial period<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>the Cold War<\/td>\r\n<td>postwar tension<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>the Great Depression<\/td>\r\n<td>the economic downturn of the 1930s<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>the Enlightenment<\/td>\r\n<td>enlightened political thought<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNote: <em>the Middle Ages<\/em> is capitalized; <em>medieval<\/em> (the adjective derived from it) is lowercase.\r\n<h3>Philosophical and Literary Terms<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Named philosophical movements and schools:<\/strong> capitalize (<em>Existentialism<\/em>, <em>Kantian ethics<\/em>, <em>Stoicism<\/em>, <em>Marxism<\/em>, <em>Deconstructionism<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Derived adjectives in common use:<\/strong> lowercase when they have shed their proper-noun identity (<em>marxist critique<\/em>, <em>platonic relationship<\/em>, <em>stoic calm<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Literary genres and forms:<\/strong> lowercase (<em>tragedy<\/em>, <em>the novel<\/em>, <em>free verse<\/em>, <em>magical realism<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Named literary works and their components:<\/strong> title case for titles; lowercase for generic references (<em>Shakespeare&#8217;s tragedies<\/em>, <em>Homeric epics<\/em>, <em>the Romantic poets<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Languages, Nationalities, and Cultural Terms<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Languages and nationalities:<\/strong> always capitalize (<em>English<\/em>, <em>Swahili<\/em>, <em>Japanese<\/em>, <em>French-Canadian<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Academic disciplines:<\/strong> generally lowercase unless they contain a proper noun (<em>history<\/em>, <em>philosophy<\/em>, <em>English literature<\/em>, <em>French linguistics<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Religious texts and traditions:<\/strong> capitalize names of sacred texts and formal religious traditions (<em>the Bible<\/em>, <em>the Quran<\/em>, <em>the Torah<\/em>, <em>Buddhism<\/em>, <em>Catholicism<\/em>); lowercase general references (<em>a religious text<\/em>, <em>monotheistic faith<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769864\"><\/a>The Trickiest Cases: A Quick-Reference Table<\/h2>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Situation<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Capitalize?<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Named law with person&#8217;s name<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Newton&#8217;s Third Law<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Generic &#8220;law&#8221; or &#8220;theory&#8221;<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td><em>the law of conservation of mass<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Disease eponym (AMA style)<\/td>\r\n<td>Partial<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Parkinson disease<\/em> (no possessive)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Generic disease name<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td><em>type 2 diabetes<\/em>, <em>hypertension<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Gene symbol<\/td>\r\n<td>Per organism convention<\/td>\r\n<td><em>BRCA1<\/em> (human), <em>Brca1<\/em> (mouse)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Protein product<\/td>\r\n<td>Roman caps<\/td>\r\n<td>BRCA1 protein<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>SI unit named after person<\/td>\r\n<td>Lowercase word, capped symbol<\/td>\r\n<td><em>newtons<\/em> (N), <em>pascals<\/em> (Pa)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Taxonomic genus<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes, italicized<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Homo<\/em>, <em>Mus<\/em>, <em>Streptococcus<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Taxonomic species<\/td>\r\n<td>No, italicized<\/td>\r\n<td><em>sapiens<\/em>, <em>musculus<\/em>, <em>pneumoniae<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Historical period<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td><em>the Renaissance<\/em>, <em>the Jurassic<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Racial\/ethnic group (APA)<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Black<\/em>, <em>Indigenous<\/em>, <em>Latino<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Study group in your paper<\/td>\r\n<td>Optional (be consistent)<\/td>\r\n<td><em>the Treatment Group<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Generic drug<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td><em>metformin<\/em>, <em>ibuprofen<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Brand-name drug<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td><em>Glucophage<\/em>, <em>Tylenol<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Celestial body (formal)<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td><em>the Moon<\/em>, <em>Mars<\/em>, <em>the Milky Way<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Generic celestial reference<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td><em>a planet<\/em>, <em>the moon rose<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769865\"><\/a>Common Mistakes to Avoid<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Over-capitalizing for emphasis.<\/strong> Capitalizing <em>the Study<\/em>, <em>the Results<\/em>, or <em>the Authors<\/em> in an abstract does not add authority but instead it signals unfamiliarity with conventions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Capitalizing job titles in running text.<\/strong> Write <em>the professor conducted the study<\/em> not <em>the Professor conducted the study<\/em>; capitalize only when the title immediately precedes a name: <em>Professor Jane Doe conducted the study<\/em>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Assuming eponyms always take possessives.<\/strong> Modern AMA and many medical journals have dropped the possessive from disease eponyms (<em>Crohn disease<\/em>, not <em>Crohn&#8217;s disease<\/em>). Check your target journal.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Capitalizing abbreviations&#8217; spelled-out forms.<\/strong> <em>DNA<\/em> is an acronym and is capitalized; <em>deoxyribonucleic acid<\/em> is lowercase.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Inconsistent treatment of named theories.<\/strong> Decide whether you will capitalize theory names throughout a manuscript, and apply the choice consistently.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><a name=\"_Toc230769866\"><\/a>Summary of Capitalization Rules Across Major Style Guides<\/h2>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Style guide<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Primary discipline<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Title case for article titles<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Eponym possessives<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Gene symbols<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>APA 7th ed.<\/td>\r\n<td>Social\/behavioral sciences<\/td>\r\n<td>No (sentence case)<\/td>\r\n<td>Retained<\/td>\r\n<td>Per organism<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>AMA Manual<\/td>\r\n<td>Medicine\/clinical<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes (books); No (articles)<\/td>\r\n<td>Dropped<\/td>\r\n<td>Per HGNC\/MGI<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Chicago 17th ed.<\/td>\r\n<td>Humanities\/history<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Author&#8217;s choice<\/td>\r\n<td>N\/A<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>CSE (Council of Science Editors)<\/td>\r\n<td>Biological\/life sciences<\/td>\r\n<td>No (sentence case)<\/td>\r\n<td>Retained or dropped<\/td>\r\n<td>Per organism<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>ACS Style Guide<\/td>\r\n<td>Chemistry<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Author&#8217;s choice<\/td>\r\n<td>N\/A<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2>Frequently Asked Question<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Should I capitalize &#8220;Table,&#8221; &#8220;Figure,&#8221; and &#8220;Equation&#8221; when referring to them in the text?<\/h3>\r\nYes \u2014 when you refer to a specific labeled element in your manuscript by its number, capitalize it. These references function as proper designations for a unique item, not generic nouns.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>The results are shown in <strong>Table 3<\/strong>.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>See <strong>Figure 2<\/strong> for the reaction pathway.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>As described in <strong>Equation 1<\/strong>&#8230;<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>The results are shown in the table below.<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe same rule applies to supplementary materials: <em>Supplementary Table S1<\/em>, <em>Supplementary Figure 3<\/em>. When referring to the element generically \u00a0without a number, you should use lowercase: <em>each table was formatted identically<\/em>, <em>the figure captions were revised<\/em>.\r\n<h3>Should I capitalize the first word of each item in a bulleted or numbered list?<\/h3>\r\nIt depends on whether each item is a complete sentence. The standard convention:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Full sentences in a list:<\/strong> capitalize the first word and end with a period.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Fragments or short phrases:<\/strong> capitalize the first word; terminal punctuation is optional and often omitted.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Items that complete a stem sentence:<\/strong> some style guides use lowercase to signal the grammatical continuation; others capitalize regardless. Choose one approach and apply it consistently throughout the document.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe key is consistency. Mixed capitalization within a single list (some items starting with capitals, others not) is always wrong regardless of which convention you follow.\r\n<h3>How should I handle capitalization in hyphenated compounds in titles?<\/h3>\r\nThis is one of the most contested areas in title-case formatting. The general guidance across major style guides:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Capitalize both elements<\/strong> if both are major words: <em>Long-Term Effects<\/em>, <em>High-Resolution Imaging<\/em>, <em>Cross-Cultural Analysis<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lowercase the second element<\/strong> if it is a minor modifier or article: <em>Follow-up Study<\/em>, <em>State-of-the-art Methods<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Capitalize the second element<\/strong> if it is a proper noun or proper adjective regardless of position: <em>Non-Newtonian Fluids<\/em>, <em>Post-Keynesian Economics<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>In sentence case<\/strong>, only the first element is capitalized unless the second is a proper noun: <em>Long-term effects of sleep deprivation<\/em>, <em>Non-Newtonian fluid dynamics<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWhen in doubt, Chicago style recommends capitalizing both elements of a hyphenated compound in a title unless the second is an article, preposition, or coordinating conjunction.\r\n<h3>How should I capitalize conditions, interventions, and timepoints that I defined in my own study, such as &#8220;baseline,&#8221; &#8220;week 12,&#8221; or &#8220;the intervention group&#8221;?<\/h3>\r\nThis is a matter of consistency and clarity rather than strict grammatical rule. APA style offers the clearest guidance: you may capitalize the names of specific conditions, groups, or timepoints in your study when doing so helps distinguish them from generic references. But you must apply the capitalization uniformly throughout the manuscript.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 <em>Participants were assessed at <strong>Baseline<\/strong>, <strong>Week 6<\/strong>, and <strong>Week 12<\/strong>.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u2713 <em>The <strong>Intervention Group<\/strong> received daily supplementation; the <strong>Control Group<\/strong> received a placebo.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u2717 <em>The intervention group showed improvement at week 6, while the Intervention Group maintained gains at Week 12.<\/em> (inconsistent)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe practical test: if a reader could confuse your specific study timepoint or group with a generic concept, capitalize to disambiguate. If the meaning is clear without it, lowercase is equally acceptable, as long as you are consistent.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2>References:<\/h2>\r\n[1] OUP. 2014.<em>\u00a0New Hart\u2019s Rules: the Oxford style guide<\/em>, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 464 pp.\r\n\r\n[2] CSE , Style Manual Committee. 2014.<em>\u00a0Scientific Style and Format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers<\/em>, 8th edn. Wheat Ridge, Colorado, USA: Council of Science Editors. 722 pp.\r\n\r\n[3] AMA. 2007.<em>\u00a0AMA Manual of Style: a guide for authors and editors<\/em>, 10th edn. New York: Oxford University Press [and American Medical Association]. 1010 pp.\r\n\r\n<em>This article was originally published on July 201, 2015, and updated on April 15, 2026.<\/em>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fdd1996 e-grid e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"fdd1996\" data-element_type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1062c99 e-flex e-con-boxed e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"1062c99\" data-element_type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-607d972 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"607d972\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.editage.com\/insights\/wp-content\/plugins\/elementor\/assets\/images\/placeholder.png\" title=\"\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>&nbsp; Jump to Contents Why Capitalization Matters in Academic Writing Core Capitalization Rules Capitalization in Titles and Headings: Sentence Case vs Title Case Capitalization in the Life Sciences Capitalization in Medicine and Clinical Sciences Capitalization in the Physical Sciences Capitalization in the Social Sciences Capitalization in the Humanities The Trickiest Cases: A Quick-Reference Table Common [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":18,"featured_media":47496,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[2375],"tags":[212],"new_categories":[],"new_tags":[],"series":[],"class_list":["post-907","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-grammar-language","tag-language-tips"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v25.0 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Using capitals in scientific writing: Rules, tips, examples | Editage Insights<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Learn when to use capitals in scientific writing, including scientific names, titles and headings, historical periods, etc.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" 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